Early pressure on nationalist militias

Anatolia had many forces on its soil: British battalions, Ahmet Aznavur forces, and the Sultan's army. The Sultan gave 4,000 soldiers from his Kuva-i Inzibatiye (Caliphate Army). Then using money from the Allies, he raised another army, a force about 2,000 strong from non-Muslim inhabitants which were initially deployed in Iznik. The sultan's government sent forces under the name of the caliphate army to the revolutionaries and aroused counterrevolutionary outbreaks.

The British being skeptical of how formidable these insurgents were, decided to use irregular power to counteract this rebellion. The nationalist forces were distributed all around Turkey, so many small units were dispatched to face them. In Izmit there were two battalions of the British army. Their commanders were living on the Ottoman warship Yavuz. These units were to be used to rout the partisans under the command of Ali Fuat Cebesoy and Refet Bele.

On 13 April, the first conflict occurred at Düzce as a direct consequence of the sheik ul-Islam's fatwa. On 18 April, the Düzce conflict was extended to Bolu; on 20 April, it extended to Gerede. The movement engulfed an important part of northwestern Anatolia for about a month. The Ottoman government had accorded semi-official status to the "Kuva-i Inzibatiye" and Ahmet Anzavur held an important role in the uprising. Both sides faced each other in a pitched battle near Izmit on June 14. Ahmet Aznavur's forces and British units outnumbered the militias. Yet under heavy attack some of the Kuva-i Inzibatiye deserted and joined the opposing ranks. This revealed the Sultan did not have the unwavering support of his men. Meanwhile, the rest of these forces withdrew behind the British lines which held their position.

The clash outside Izmit brought serious consequences. The British forces opened fire on the nationalists and bombed them from the air. This bombing forced a retreat but there was a panic in Constantinople. The British commander—General George Milne—asked for reinforcements. This led to a study to determine what would be required to defeat the Turkish nationalists. The report—signed by Field Marshal Ferdinand Foch—concluded that 27 divisions would be sufficient, but the British army did not have 27 divisions to spare. Also gallipoli tour , a deployment of this size could have disastrous political consequences back home. World War I had just ended, and the British public would not support another lengthy and costly expedition.

The British accepted the fact that a nationalist movement could not be faced without deployment of consistent and well-trained forces. On June 25, the forces originating from Kuva-i Inzibatiye were dismantled under British supervision. The official stance was that there was no use for them. The British realized that the best option to overcome these Turkish nationalists was to use a force that was battle-tested and fierce enough to fight the Turks on their own soil. The British had to look no further than Turkey's neighbor: Greece.

Promulgation of the Grand National Assembly

The strong measures taken against the nationalists by the Ottoman government created a distinct new phase. Mustafa Kemal sent a note to the governors and force commanders, asking them to implement the election of delegates to join the GNA, which would convene in Ankara. Mustafa Kemal appealed to the Islamic world, asking for help to make sure that everyone knew he was still fighting in the name of the sultan who was also the caliph. He stated he wanted to free the Caliph from the Allies. Plans were made to organize a new government and parliament in Ankara, and then ask the sultan to accept its authority.

A flood of supporters moved to Ankara just ahead of the Allied dragnets. Included among them were Halide Edip, Adnan (Adývar), Ýsmet (Ýnönü), Mustafa Kemal’s important allies in the Ministry of War, and Celaleddin Arif, the president of the Chamber of Deputies. Yunus Nadi (Abalýoglu), the owner of Yeni Gün newspaper, journalist-author and deputy of Izmir, Halide Edip (Adývar) met in Geyve on March 31. Anzac Day Tours Gallipoli Two intellectuals discussed the necessity that a news agency should be established to counter the allied occupation administration's censure over the news. They chose Anadolu as the name. Mustafa Kemal, whom they meet in Ankara, immediately launched initiatives to herald the establishment of the Anadolu Agency. Mustafa Kemal wanted to transmit news stories to the world. Kemal also stressed the importance of making the national struggle heard inside and outside of the country. Celaleddin Arif's desertion of the capital was of great significance. Celaleddin Arif stated that the Ottoman Parliament had been dissolved illegally. The Armistice did not give Allies the power to dissolve the Ottoman Parliament and the Constitution of 1909 had also removed the Sultan's power to do so, to prevent what Abdülhamid did in 1879.

Some 100 members of the Ottoman Parliament were able to escape the Allied roundup and joined 190 deputies elected around the country by the national resistance group. Ismet Inonü joined as a deputy from Edirne. In March 1920, Turkish revolutionaries announced that the Turkish nation was establishing its own Parliament in Ankara under the name Grand National Assembly (GNA). The GNA assumed full governmental powers. On April 23, the new Assembly gathered for the first time, making Mustafa Kemal its first president and Ismet Inönü chief of the General Staff. The new regime’s determination to revolt against the government in the capital and not the Sultan was quickly made evident. By May 3, 1920, a Turkish Provisional Government was also formed in Ankara.

The Ottoman German Alliance

The Ottoman – German Alliance was an alliance between the German Empire and the Ottoman Empire that was ratified on August 2, 1914, shortly following the outbreak of World War I. The alliance was created as part of a joint-cooperative effort that would strengthen and modernize the ailing Ottoman military, as well as provide Germany safe passage into neighboring British colonies.

On the eve of the First World War, the Ottoman Empire was in ruinous shape. As a result of subsequent wars fought in this period, territories were lost, the economy was in shambles and people were demoralized and tired. What the Empire needed was time to recover and to carry out reforms; however, there was no time, because the world was sliding into war and the Ottoman Empire was highly unlikely to manage to remain outside the coming conflict. Since staying neutral and focusing on recovery did not appear to be possible, the Empire had to ally with one or the other camp, because, after the Italo-Turkish War and Balkan Wars, it was completely out of resources. There were not adequate quantities of weaponry and machinery left; and neither did the Empire have the financial means to purchase new ones. The only option for the Sublime Port was to establish an alliance with a European power; and at first it did not really matter which one that would be. As Talat Paþa, the Minister of Interior, wrote in his memoirs: “Turkey needed to join one of the country groups so that it could organize its domestic administration, strengthen and maintain its commerce and industry, expand its railroads, in short to survive and to preserve its existence.”

The problem was that most European powers were not keen to conclude an alliance with the ailing Ottoman Empire. Already at the beginning of the Turko-Italian War in Northern Africa, the Grand Vizier Sait Halim Paþa had expressed the government’s desire, and the Turkish ambassadors were asked to find out whether the European capitals would be interested. Only Russia seemed to have an interest – however, under conditions that would have amounted a Russian protectorate on the Ottoman lands. It was impossible to reconcile an alliance with the French: as France's main ally was Russia, the long-time enemy of the Ottoman Empire since the War of 1828. Great Britain declined an Ottoman request.

The Ottoman Sultan Mehmed V specifically wanted the Empire to remain a non-belligerent nation. However pressure from some of Mehmed's senior advisors led the Empire to align with the Central Powers. Whilst Great Britain was unenthusiastic about aligning with the Ottoman Empire Germany was enthusiastic.

Germany needed the Ottoman Empire on its side. The Orient Express had run directly to Constantinople since 1889, and prior to the First World War the Sultan had consented to a plan to extend it through Anatolia to Baghdad under German auspices. This would strengthen the Ottoman Empire's link with industrialised Europe, while also giving Germany easier access to its African colonies and to trade markets in India. To keep the Ottoman Empire from joining the Triple Entente, Germany encouraged Romania and Bulgaria to enter the Central Powers.

A secret treaty was concluded between the Ottoman Empire and the German Empire on August 2, 1914. The Ottoman Empire was to enter the war on the side of the Central Powers one day after the German Empire declared war on Russia. The alliance was ratified on 2 August by many high ranking Ottoman officials, including Grand Vizier Said Halim Pasha, the Minister of War Enver Pasha, the Interior Minister Talat Pasha, and Head of Parliament Halil Bey.

However, there was no signature from the House of Osman as the Sultan Mehmed V did not sign it. The Sultan was the Commander-in-Chief of the Army, as written in the constitution, this made the legitimacy of the Alliance questionable. This meant that the army was not be able to fight on behalf of the Sultan. The Sultan himself had wanted the Empire to remain neutral. He did not wish to command a war himself and as such left the Cabinet to do much of his bidding. The third member of the cabinet of the Three Pashas Djemal Pasha also did not sign the treaty as he had tried to form an alliance with France. The Alliance was not universally accepted by all parts of the Ottoman government (see below Geoffrey Miller "Turkey enters the war").

The Ottoman Empire did not enter the war until German elements in the Ottoman Navy took matters into their own hands and bombarded Russian ports on the 29th of October 1914.

Mehmed V Reshad

Mehmed V Reshad (Ottoman Turkish: Turkish: Mehmed V Reþad or Reþat Mehmet) (2/3 November 1844 – 3/4 July 1918) was the 35th Ottoman Sultan. He was the son of Sultan Abdülmecid I. He was succeeded by his half-brother Mehmed VI.

Birth
He was born at Topkapý Palace, Constantinople. Like many other potential heirs to the throne, he was confined for 30 years in the Harems of the palace. For nine of those years he was in solitary confinement. During this time he studied poetry of the old Persian style and was an acclaimed poet. On his ninth birthday he was ceremoniously circumcised in the special Circumcision Room (Sünnet Odasi) of Topkapý Palace.

Reign
His reign began on 27 April 1909 but he was largely a figurehead with no real political power, as the Ottoman state affairs were largely run by the Three Pashas since the Young Turk Revolution in 1908. Mehmed V's only significant political act was to formally declare jihad against the Entente Powers (Allies of World War I) on 11 November 1914, following the Ottoman government's decision to join the First World War on the side of the Central Powers. He was actually said to look with disfavor on the pro-German policy of Enver Pasha.

This was the last genuine proclamation of jihad in history by a Caliph, as the Caliphate lasted until 1924. The proclamation had no noticeable effect on the war, despite the fact that many Muslims lived in Ottoman territories. The Arabs eventually joined the British forces against the Ottomans with the Arab Revolt in 1916.

Mehmed V hosted Kaiser Wilhelm II, his World War I ally, in Constantinople on 15 October 1917. He was made Generalfeldmarschall of the Kingdom of Prussia on 27 January 1916, and of the Empire of Germany on 1 February 1916

Death
Mehmed V died at Yýldýz Palace on 3 July 1918 at the age of 73, only four months before the end of World War I. Thus, he did not live to see the downfall of the Ottoman Empire. He spent most of his life at the Dolmabahçe Palace and Yýldýz Palace in Constantinople. His grave is in the historic Eyüp district of the city.

Family life
First marriage and issue
He married firstly at Constantinople, Ortaköy Palace, on 30 September 1872 to Azerbaijani HH Kamres Kadýn Efendi (Ganja, Caucus, 5 March 1855 – Kuruçesme, Istanbul, 30 April 1921)

Second marriage and issue
He married secondly at Constantinople, Ortaköy Palace, on 10 October 1876 to Georgian HH Dürr-i Aden Kadýn Efendi (Kars, Caucus, 16 May 1860 – Istanbul, 17 October 1909)

Third marriage and issue
He married thirdly at Constantinople, Ortaköy Palace, on 4 April 1887 to HH Mihrengiz Kadýn Efendi (Adapazarý, 15 October 1869 – Alexandria, 12 December 1938 and buried in Cairo), and had:

Fourth marriage and issue
He married fourthly at Constantinople, Ortaköy Palace, in 1888 to HH Nazperver Kadýn Efendi (1870 - Istanbul, 1930) and had one child.

Fifth marriage and issue
He married fifthly at Constantinople, Ortaköy Palace, in 1907 to HH Dilfirib Kadýn Efendi (1890 - Istanbul, 1953) without issue.

Triple Entente

The Triple Entente (from French entente "friendship, understanding, agreement") was the alliance linking the Russian Empire, the French Third Republic, and the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland after the signing of the Anglo-Russian Entente on August 31, 1907. The alliance of the three powers, supplemented by agreements with Portugal and Japan, constituted a powerful counterweight to the Triple Alliance of Germany, Austria-Hungary and the Kingdom of Italy.

Historians continue to debate the importance of the alliance system in igniting the Great War. At the start of World War I in 1914, all three of the Triple Entente entered it as Allies against the Central Powers Germany and Austria-Hungary.

French Isolation

Russia had previously been a member of the League of the Three Emperors with Austria-Hungary and Germany, an alliance established in 1873 between Tsar Alexander II, Emperor Franz Joseph I and Kaiser Wilhelm I. The alliance was part of the German Chancellor Otto von Bismarck's plan to isolate France diplomatically; he feared France had revanchist aspirations and might try to regain her 1871 losses, and to fight against radical sentiments the conservative rulers found unsettling, such as the First International.

However, the League faced great difficulty with the growing tensions between the Russian Empire and Austria-Hungary. These tensions revolved mainly over the Balkans where, with the rise of nationalism and the continued decline of the Ottoman Empire, many former Ottoman provinces struggled for independence.

The situation in the Balkans (especially in the wake of the Serbo-Bulgarian War) and the 1878 Treaty of Berlin, which left Russia feeling cheated of her gains made in the Russo-Turkish War led to the League not being renewed in 1887.

In an attempt to stop Russia from allying with France, Bismarck signed the secret Reinsurance Treaty with Russia in 1887, assuring both parties would remain neutral toward each other should war break out.

Due to the alliance between Russia and France, and Bismarck's exclusion of Russia from the German financial market in 1887, the treaty was not renewed, ending the alliance between Germany and Russia.

Franco-Russian Alliance

Despite the Reinsurance Treaty, the Russian leadership was alarmed at the country's diplomatic isolation and entered the Franco-Russian Alliance in 1894. Russia then broke the treaty in 1900 which resulted in a dispute.

Entente cordiale

In 1904, Britain and France signed a series of agreements called the Entente cordiale. These agreements directly concerned colonies.

The Entente heralded the end of British neutrality in Europe. It was partly a response to growing German antagonism, as expressed in the expansion of the Kaiserliche Marine (Imperial Navy) into a battle fleet that could threaten the supremacy of the Royal Navy.

Anglo-Russian Convention of 1907

In 1907 Britain and Russia signed an agreement called the Anglo-Russian Convention of 1907. It stopped their rivalry in Central Asia (The Great Game).

Participating nations
Britain

In the last decade of the 19th century, Britain continued its policy of "splendid isolation", with its primary focus on defending its massive overseas empire. However, by the early 1900s the German threat increased dramatically. Some in Britain thought it was in need of allies. For most of the 19th century, Britain had regarded France and Russia as its two most dangerous rivals, but with the growing threat of Germany, British policy began to change.

The three main reasons were:

France and Britain had signed five separate agreements regarding spheres of influence in North Africa in 1904. This came to be known as the Entente Cordiale. The Tangier Crisis which followed encouraged co-operation between the two countries, given their mutual fear of apparent

German expansionism.
Russia was defeated in the Russo-Japanese War. This display of weakness resulted in less concern over Russian imperialism and encouraged Russia to secure its position elsewhere. France was already allied to Russia in the Dual Alliance.

Britain was extremely concerned about the rising threat of German imperialism. Kaiser Wilhelm II had announced to the world his intentions to create a global German empire and to develop a strong navy. Britain—traditionally having control of the seas—saw this as a serious threat to its own empire and navy.

In 1907, the Anglo-Russian Entente was agreed, which attempted to resolve a series of long-running disputes over Persia, Afghanistan and Tibet, as well as helping to address British fears about German expansion in the Near East.

French Third Republic

During the Franco-Prussian War of 1870–1871, Prussia defeated the Second French Empire, resulting in the establishment of the Third Republic. In the Treaty of Frankfurt, Prussia forced France to cede Alsace-Lorraine to the new German Empire. Ever since, relations had been at an all time low. France—worried about the escalating military development of Germany—began building up its own war industries and army as a deterrent to German aggression. As another measure, France developed a strong bond with Russia by ratifying the Franco-Russian Alliance, which was designed to create a strong counter to the Triple Alliance. France's main concerns were to protect against an attack from Germany, and to regain Alsace-Lorraine.

1914 Russian poster. The upper inscription reads "agreement". The uncertain Britannia (right) and Marianne (left) look to the determined Mother Russia (centre) to lead them in the coming war.

Russian Empire

Russia possessed, by far, the largest manpower reserves of all the six European powers, but was also the most backward economically. Russia shared France's worries about Germany. After the Germans started to reorganize the Turkish army, Russia feared that they would come to control the Dardanelles, a vital trade artery which accounted for two fifths of Russia's exports.

This was also coupled with Russia's long history of rivalry with Austria-Hungary. Austria-Hungary had recently annexed Bosnia and Herzegovina, angering Russia immensely. Russia had considered itself the leader of the Slavic world (Pan-Slavism) and viewed the invasion as another step towards annexing Serbia and Montenegro. To counteract Austria-Hungary's aggression into the Balkans, Russia pledged to aid Serbia militarily if invaded.

Russia had also recently lost the humiliating Russo-Japanese War in 1905, resulting in a revolutionary uprising and apparent transformation into a constitutional monarchy. To counter its enemies militarily and politically, Russia sought to revive the Franco-Russian Alliance. Although it was perceived as useless during the war with Japan, in the European theatre it was invaluable. Russia signed the Anglo-Russian Convention of 1907 with Britain to counteract the threat of the Triple Alliance.

SOURCE: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Triple_Entente

 

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Discover Lefkada

Lefkada is the ideal destination for those who want to combine mountain and sea holidays, but also for those who prefer moving by car then by boat. Its big advantage is that the access to the island can be done also from Aitoloakarnania, by the floating bridge.

It is a heavenly place, full of colors and scents. It took its name from its largest Cape, “Lefkata”, whose natural beauty will impress you.

Lefkada is famous for its paradise and exotic beaches, which every year are awarded. On the north side of the island, are the beaches of St. John (for wind surfers and kite surfers), Gyra, Castle and Ammoglossa. On the west side are Pefkoulia, Saint Nikitas, Milos (with the white sand and the turquoises deep waters),  Kathisma (meaning seat in greek), Egkremni (that it is considered the best of the Mediterranean), Porto Katsiki (awarded as the best beach of Greece), Kalamitsi, Kavalikefta, Megali Petra and Avali beaches. The eastside of the island has Lygia, Episkopos, Nikiana, Perigiali, Desimi and Nydri beaches. Finally, in the south, you can visit the Mikro Gialo, Ammousa, Agiofylli and Vasiliki (for wind surfers and kite surfers).

It is worth visiting the Castle of Santa Maura, which was built by the Orsini in 1300, in order to thwart the pirates. The archaeological Museum of Lefkada, hosts findings from the Paleolithic Age until the Late Roman period, as well as findings from the excavations of the German archaeologist Wilhelm Dörpfeld, which had the conviction that Lefkada was Homer’s Ithaca. In the Folklore Museum Karyas Maria Koutsochero, you will be impressed by the large collection of embroideries and weaving, with the characteristic karsaniki stitch. The Phonograph Museum is a private owned museum in which you can see phonographs, records, decorative items and postcards dated to the early 20th century. The most important monastery of the island is the abbey of Faneromeni that was founded in 1650. Finally, in the canyon of Dimosari, you will find the small waterfalls and the more adventurous can dive into their cold waters.

On the island you can visit two traditional Lighthouses, the Lighthouse in the Castle of Lefkada (Santa Maura), which was built in 1861 and it is one of the best preserved in Greece. And the Doukato Lighthouse at the cape of Lefkata, built in 1890, on the ruins of the ancient temple of Apollo.

The Eglouvi area is famous for producing top quality lentils. The harvest is celebrated with a feast which takes place in early August. Last but not least don’t forget to try the special dry salami, the salted cod and sardines as well as the cuttlefishes cooked in their ink accompanied by rice.

Monument of a Russian poet on the Parnassus slopes in Delphi

“The monument of the great Russian poet Alexander Sergeevich Pushkin was installed on the Parnassus slopes in Delphi, a holy place as the poet would often writte in his poems.

Its opening took place on June 6 at the theater of Delphi Palace, 215 years from the poets birth and also a day where the Russian language is celebrated. “This act is the first step for the creation of a memorial park of great literary figures of the world in Delphi” highlited Mr Panos Kaltsis from the NGO Ecumnenical Delphi Council at the beginning of the ceremony.The installation of the momument was an act of the Encumenical Delphi Council and the Institution of Russian speaking writers.